Realism versus other Theories of International Relations

The history of world-politics has been dominated by various theories that help explain international relations. In the recent past, debate has been rife over which theory is better suited to foster sound world-politics. The world’s political forum constantly attempts to substantiate which international relations theory can successfully deal with pressing global issues such as war and peace.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Realism versus other Theories of International Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this debate, most scholars are of the view that the choice of the international relations theory has a great impact on global politics. Unlike political ideologies, international relations theories have to be proven before being instituted. The most common theories of international relations are liberalism and realism. Theories of international relations are modeled on the concept that nations usu ally act in a manner that serves their national interests. Examples of national interests include economic prosperity, military power, and self-preservation. This essay presents the argument that realism explains more about the important aspects of world politics than the other theories of international relations. Realism is an international relations theory that argues that countries only act in a manner that increases their power in relation to that of other countries. Realism claims among other things that a powerful country is best suited to outdo other relatively weaker countries. The general concept behind realism is that the world is a dangerous and harsh place. There are several theories that counter the concepts contained in realism. The most prominent counter-realism theory is liberalism. According to liberalism, the closeness between countries has nullified realism. The fact that several states have similar interests has eliminated the need to employ military power in the event of a disagreement. The other counter-realism theory is idealism. Idealism stresses on the need for nations to employ moral ethics when they are conducting their international politics. Idealism champions for the abandonment of inferior tactics such as trickery, dishonesty, and violence. Proponents of realism argue that it is formulated on the assumption that the global-politics arena is dominated by anarchy. The foundation of realism is pegged on ‘human nature’. This means that realists assume that governments like human beings are driven by self-interest. Therefore, it is unlikely that the political organizations that are formulated based on other international relations theories can be able to change human nature. The pessimistic nature of realism is often challenged by both idealists and liberalists. Although the pessimistic nature of realism seems undesirable, its central premise bears a solid argument. Many scholars concur that human beings are creatures who are self-preservative by instinct. Politics is a reflection of individual human beings albeit in a collective front.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Realists articulate that nations are primarily reflections of collective human nature. This makes it hard to argue that the behavior of states can be different from that of individuals. The evidence of the anarchy that is characteristic of human nature can be witnessed all over the world. The events that transpire in the course of conducting global politics provide a solid backing for realism. Currently, the drive for self-preservation and accumulation of resources are prime influences of international politics. For instance, the relationship between the United States and China is dominated by the need for self-preservation on the side United States and the need to gain resources on China’s side. Most human beings wo uld concur with the premises behind realism. There are several events around the world today that are used to interpret the current state of world politics. Some of the events that help interpret global politics include ideological differences between nations, armed conflict, and possibilities of conflict. These events are a clear indication that realism is a valid theoretical concept. Even in a world where people lean towards other theories such liberalism and idealism, political events are still characterized by realistic tendencies. For instance, the political class in the United States constantly distances itself from realism and yet its actions are in line with realism. In addition, the fact that the most politically influential countries in the world are also the countries with the most military power supports realism. The anarchical mode of political operation that is proposed by realism is very similar to the current order of events in the global political arena. Even though realism is well represented in the global arena, its advocacy can steer a state towards a path of conflict. Proponents of realism blame the theory for increasing aggression, unnecessary military expansions, and conflicts. The need to foster international political unity is greatly undermined by realism. Unsatisfactory political unity can hamper free trade, peace, and cooperation among countries. The liberalists often blame realism for the collapse of the Soviet Union. In its heydays, the Soviet Union exemplified one of the strongest political units to date. Liberalists also argue that the benefits of globalization are too valuable to be ignored. Given that realism is often touted as one of the deterrents of globalization, liberalists conclude it has no place in modern day global politics. The fact that realism conveys the most important facts in modern politics can be exemplified by the fact that it is a useful reference during conflict resolution. For a conflict to be resolved, it s cause has to be understood.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Realism versus other Theories of International Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Realism is best suited in scenarios where tensions and conflicts are rife. The fact that realism concerns itself with a world that is characterized by self-interest and war makes it pertinent to global politics. The last century has seen realism come under attack as an outdated international relations theory. However, events that have transpired within this same period indicate that these attacks have been baseless. For instance, the political events that transpired during the cold war era highlighted realism on a global scale. During the cold war era, constant jostling for positions of power kept both the US and the USSR in a state of near conflict. These actions point towards the anarchic political actions that are exemplified by realism. Without an in-depth un derstanding of realism, it would be hard to resolve political conflicts and acts of aggression. Realism is arguably the easiest theory to define amongst the international relations theories. All political and international relations experts concur that realism provides a measurable success rate as opposed to other theories. For instance, military superiority can be exhibited through machinery to a measurable extent. However, opponents of realism often decry the over-emphasis of military might as a measure of political superiority. There is a school of thought that is of the view that the simplistic nature of realism renders it circular in nature. For instance, realism leads to the argument that countries ‘obtain power because they obtain power’. Therefore, little attention is paid to the reasoning behind the actions of the countries that pursue realism. The hunger for power among nations can also eclipse other important developments in international politics. A lot of a ttention is paid to displays of power as opposed to other modern methods of conflict resolution. The legitimacy of realism as the most relevant international relations theory is constantly undermined by the other international relations theories. The Democratic Peace Theory for instance argues that democracy in itself can foster peaceful coexistence among nations. The efficacy of the democratic theory is however undermined by the fact that even democracies get involved in conflicts. Another backing to realism being a superior and more simplistic international relations theory is that even the other theories tend to employ realism in their operations. For example, the United States’ invasion of Iraq was said to be an attempt to foster democracy in that country. However, the invasion itself was characteristic of realism because it involved violence and military invasion. The major opposing theory towards realism is liberalism. Liberalism advocates for free trade among countries , capitalism, and democratically elected governments. Realists usually fault liberalists using the argument that liberalism is not a real-world theory. This argument is not entirely true but it is fostered by the fact that the results achieved by liberalism are less dramatic than those achieved by realism are. However, the tedious nature of liberalism makes it seem more like an ideology than a theory.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The debate as to whether realism is the most practical and simplistic theory when it comes to international politics is set to continue. The most prominent argument for realism is that it is the only true theory and the other theories are mostly ideologies. The main argument against realism is that it is has no place in today’s globalization politics. However, the facts indicate that the relevance of realism in politics is evident and it cannot be ignored. This essay on Realism versus other Theories of International Relations was written and submitted by user Dylan George to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How to Help Students Take Notes

How to Help Students Take Notes Students often find taking notes in class a difficult proposition. Typically, they dont know what they should and should not include. Some tend to try and write everything you say without really hearing and integrating it. Others take very sparse notes, giving them little context for when they refer back to them later. Some students focus on irrelevant items in your notes, missing the key points entirely. Therefore, it is important that we as teachers help our students learn the best practices for taking effective notes. Following are some ideas that you can use to help students become more comfortable and better at note taking in the classroom setting. Scaffold Your Notes This simply means that you are giving your students clues to the key items you will be covering when you lecture to the students. At the beginning of the year, you should provide the students with a fairly detailed scaffold or outline. They can then take notes on this scaffold as you talk. As the year progresses, you can use less and less detail until you simply list out the key topics and subtopics you will be covering. However, it is important to note that you should give students a chance to read through the scaffold before you actually begin your lecture. Always Use the Same Key Words As you are lecturing, highlight key topics and ideas in some way. At the beginning of the year, you should be very clear when you are covering a key point that the students should be sure to remember. As the year goes on, you can make your hints more subtle. Though, remember, the goal of teaching is not to trip up your students. Ask Questions Throughout Asking questions throughout your lecture serves a few purposes. It keeps students on their toes, it checks comprehension, and it highlights key points you want them to remember. However, with that said it is important that your questions do cover key points. Introduce Each Topic Before Presenting Details Some teachers lecture by providing students with a lot of facts and expecting them to connect them to the overall topic. However, this can be very confusing. Instead, you should introduce the topic and fill in details always showing how it relates to the topic. Review Each Topic Before Moving On As you wrap up each key topic or subtopic, you should refer back to it again and restate one or two key sentences the students should remember. Teach Students to Use a Two-Column System In this system, students take their notes in the left column. Later, they add information in the right column from their textbooks and other readings. Collect Notes and Check Them Take a look at what students are doing and give them feedback to help them improve. You can do this right away or after they go home and finish out their notes from the textbook. Despite the evidence which shows that students need help taking notes, many teachers do not see the need to help them by scaffolding and using the other ideas listed here. This is very sad, for listening, taking effective notes, and then referring to these notes when studying helps reinforce learning for our students. Note taking is a learned skill, therefore, it is important that we take the lead in helping students become effective note takers.

Henry the first and henry the second Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Henry the first and henry the second - Essay Example Henry also initiated many reforms by appointing officials who administered justice impartialy and sought to restrict the abuse of power by local barons. He won the praise of the local population for his propotionate use of justice to curb the power by the nobility. His era is also marked by peace with the Church which was in dispute during the reign of his brother. Henry also married from the old English nobility which was a major step towards the unification of English and Norman people. King Henry II was another famous king of England who presided over many political, legal and religious reforms during his time period. One of his reforms was to curb the power of rebellious barons who had created their own castles and refused to provide military assistance to the King. Henry II also initiated the royal control of the church. He also strove to create a fairer legal system which would administer justice for the common people. This paper studies the legal and political reforms of both Kings. Finally the paper contrasts the reforms of these Kings. Henry I ascended the throne of England in 1100 after defeating his elder brother, Robert Curthose in 1106. He initiated many legal and political reforms which transformed England. He passed the Charter of Liberties which restricted the monarch in his dealings with the church and nobility. The charter rectified many abuses which were perpetrated during the time period of William Rufus, the previous monarch. This charter reduced the number of taxes imposed on the barons in order to prevent them from being rebellious1. Other abuses were the crimes of simony which was making profits out of sacred things. The Charter of Liberties also addressed the issue of pluralism in which land was gifted to priests and bishops for the services that they had rendered for the church2. Henry developed an effective and efficient bureaucracy which would rule and operate the kingdom in

Managing high performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Managing high performance - Essay Example A second topic that should be discussed at the meeting is teamwork. A lack of teamwork is a symptom that is currently being displayed by the workers. The firm has to modify the work structure of the workers in order to design team assignments. The employees will learn to cooperate and work with each other better in team settings because they will be force to depend on the efforts of their teammates. â€Å"Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision† (Carnegie). A third topic that is going to be discussed at the meeting is communication. In order for the current issues to be resolved the lines of communication between the workers and the managerial staff must be opened at all times. The communication process in the workplace has been enhanced by the use of technology. A technique that can help bring solidarity among the workers is to have weekly face to face meetings between the entire staff. Good communication is needed in business to achieve success (Mindt ools,

Recent Development in the Thoery of Rules versus Dicretions Essay

Recent Development in the Thoery of Rules versus Dicretions - Essay Example In this respect, this essay will assess the rationale in the Barro-Gordon Model of rules versus discretion to illustrate the relationship between monetary policies and inflation in achieving economic outcomes. Monetary policies play a crucial role in achieving certain outcomes – low unemployment, high money supply, or low inflation – in the economy. Achieving these outcomes, however, depends on the existing conditions surrounding the economic environment, which is also affected both by an individual’s expectations on future policies and economic conditions and the manner that these expectations are formed (Barro 1984: 1-2). The weight given to individual expectations, in this regard, highlights the monetary rules versus discretion debate under monetary economics such that as illustrated by the Barro-Gordon Model, an individuals’ expectations regarding future policies can either offset the effects of inflation under discretionary policies or achieve the zero inflation outcome through rules (Barro and Gordon 1983). Contrary to the traditional debate between rules and discretion focused on a policymaker’s capabilities and objectives; the Barro-Gordon Model is based on Kydland and Prescott’s work that identifies rules as a form of commitment similar to public policies and business dealings (Barro 1984: 1). In this respect, a monetary policy will only be as effective as the government’s reputation and its credibility in making a commitment to a policy because assuming that individuals are rational, they will always act in manner that predicts government behaviour and compensate for any losses that they believe will come from it. Hence, under monetary policies, where the output is always a consequent rise or fall in inflation, assuming that inflation is high and individuals are rational, these individuals will always expect a higher inflation rate and immediately adjust to these high rates, eliminating the

Housebreaking Crimes And Offences Of Burglary Criminology Essay

Housebreaking Crimes And Offences Of Burglary Criminology Essay Burglary known also as housebreaking is a crime, the quintessence of which is an entry into premises for the intentions of committing an offence. Typically, that offence will be a form of theft, but many jurisdictions stipulate others, which fall same case within the realm of burglary. Burglary can be explained using two theories including Social ecology: Crime and place theory and Strain and sub cultural theories. The two theories are significant in explaining Burglary as a crime but espouse the ideas differently. This paper critically compares and contrasts the two theories as well as how differently they explain Burglary. It details many concepts surrounding the explanations of burglary with differentiation of particulars of each theory. This leads us to the next part on literature review of some of the works written on this topic. Crime and place theory explains Burglary in the context of the location of the crime itself. Theories of crime can be sub divided into the theories seeking to explain the criminal offenders development, and the theories seeking to explain the criminal events development (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Theories on Burglary have been overriding in criminology development. Most research on crime as well as crime prevention focus mainly on why certain types of persons commit crime and exactly what can be, done about it. It is only in recent times that serious attention has been paid to explain crimes such as Burglary rather than the peoples criminality (Anderson, 1998). Concern with the place is much central to this effective approach (Capone Nichols 1996). While theories of criminality and crime such as Burglary are often seen to compete in explaining the Burglary problem, it practical to begin with the concept that offender as well as event explanations complements each other consid erably than competitors (Carter Hill, 1996). Many other works explain the main reason why there is need to use theories in crime is to understand the reason why the perpetrators of crime do it and where and how they are likely to do it. Offenders may be motivated highly, but unless they facilitate the creation of a crime event, there is surely nothing to explain (Cromwell Olson, 1991). In the same way, given a criminal act such as Burglary, the etiology of the event should in some manner, have an explanation of the respective offender (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Theories of Offender should tell us eventually how people develop to be criminal offenders, and the situation where the same criminals desist from offending. Theories such as these may insinuate crime prevention strategies focused on the individuals likely to become solemn violent criminals, or high-rate criminals committing less grave crimes (Roncek, 1991). However, to date many theories about criminality development do not provide a strong basis for making pred ictions such as these, and there is miniature consensus as to what a theory in the future would be like in explaining criminal acts (Capone Nichols 1996). Other literature makes it possible to link crime such as burglary with place and situations. A place is a small area, typically a street corner, building, address, or street segment. A focus on places contrasts with a concentrating on neighborhoods. Neighborhood theories regularly highlight the offenders development, while place level explanations give emphasis to crime events. Three perspectives imply the relevance of places for understanding criminal acts including routine activity theory, rational choice and crime pattern theory (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). However, these perspectives are equally supportive; crime pattern theory and routine activity theory provide varying explanations for crime happening at different places. Five research areas help us understand the relevance of places in explaining crime (Capone Nichols 1996). Crime intensity about scrupulous facilities, for example, bars, the high crime concentration at some addresses and crime absence at others; the prec autionary effects of a variety of place features; the offenders mobility; and studies of the way offenders select their targets. The following examples provide just a glimpse of the mounting recognition of the place role in crime as well as crime control. Lawsuits hinging on the claimants ability to show that parking lots and buildings are gratuitously dangerous abound in the civil courts (White, 1990). Local newspapers contain community protests in opposition to drinking establishments, 24-hour stores or sex shops, seen as magnets for criminals. Community advocates propose taking legal action against place owners that disrupt neighborhoods (Anderson, 1998). To add more on places and situations, more literature prevails in this context. Police programs focusing on where burglary happens rather than the people committing them are developing in  towns; at the same time that a number of academic studies reveal that is concentrated at particular places even in neighborhoods that have high burglary rates (Capone Nichols 1996). Concern with the affiliation between burglary and the place is not new. As early as the nineteenth century, scholars analyzed the distribution burglary across regions with differing social characteristics and ecological (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). In the U.S., pioneering advocates of sociology examined carefully the burglary location in the city of Chicago (White, 1990). They argued that distinctiveness of the urban environment is relevant to explain the emergence of burglary in specific communities (White, 1990). On the other hand, these early attempts of understanding the correlation between burglary and plac e took a macro approach considering aggregates of places such as states, cities, regions, communities and neighborhoods instead of a micro approach examining the places themselves. There have been new developments in the crime and place theory explaining further on the same topic. Recent interest crime and place focus on micro-level relationships. The studies begin with distinctive efforts of identifying the correlation between Places of Crime in Crime Theory particular aspects of urban design (Barr Pease, 1990) or the architecture; and burglary as a crime, but broadened to account for a much larger set of physical space characteristics and criminal opportunity. These studies drew variations between the site in question and the geographical area (for example community, neighborhood, city or police beat), which surrounds it. Places in this micro perspective are particular locations within the broad social environment. They can be small as the area next to a teller machine or large as a strip shopping center, or a building. Often places thought as having particular types of businesses (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Conversely, Sherman et al. (1989) proposes that this new focus on discrete areas is fundamental enough to be appropriately, seen as a separate new area of study in the area of burglary as a crime. He conducts a survey of some crime practices among the juveniles who ever participated in crime. Recent trends in the understanding of the relevance of opportunity in crime prevention (White, 1990) and the influence of crime displacement (Anderson, 1998) suggest additionally that place should be an essential component in crime prevention and crime theory. Additionally, three recent perspectives including routine activity theory, rational choice, and crime pattern theory have influenced the understanding of the relevance of place in preventing burglary as a crime (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). A rational choice perspective explains the basic rationale for define place as necessary, since it espouses that offenders should select targets as well as define means of achieving their goals in a way that can be explained (Anderson, 1998). Some scholars claim that this perspective in theory is to some degree not testable, as it is virtually always possible to interpret individual behavior as rational from the burglars perspective (Anderson, 1998). Others have shown that it is possible to test several forms of rational choice (Anderson, 1998). Nonetheless, a rational choice perspective can be of use in developing testable propositions, which describe burglary crime events and burglars behavior. This is particularly true if a rational choice perspect ive is of use in combinations with routine activity theory (Barr Pease, 1990). Routine activity theory explains the occurrence of burglary crime events as the confluence of numerous circumstances (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). First, there should be a motivated offender. On the other hand, the development of motivated burglars is the goal of the theories. Second, there should be an enviable target. Third, the specific objective and the burglar must be in the same place and time (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Finally, three types of controllers including guardians, intimate handlers, and place managers should be ineffective or absent. Intimate handlers are specifically people who hold a direct, personal influence relatively over a burglar (for example parents, coaches, friends, teachers, or employers). In the presence of these people, potential burglars do not commit burglary crimes. Many adults are away from such intimate handlers for the largest part of the day and many burglars, both adult and juvenile, have few or relatively no intimate handlers (Anderson, 1998). To understand these concepts, it is good to dig deeper into the theories explanations. People taking care of the places are, named place managers. Place managers, (for instance apartment managers, janitors, and others) regulate individual behavior at the locations they have control over. For a burglary crime to occur, these people must be ineffective, absent or negligent (Anderson, 1998). Crime and place pattern theory is noteworthy particularly in developing, an understanding of burglary as a crime and place because it combines routine activity theory and rational choice to help explain the burglary distribution across places (White, 1990). The distribution of burglars, handlers, guardians, targets, and managers over the place and time describe burglary crime patterns (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Changes in society are the main reason for the increased the number of targets while separating them relatively from the people who could make an effort of protecting them (guardians, handlers and managers). Reasonably rational burglars, while they engage in their routine activities, will eventually note places without managers and guardians as well as where their handlers have a less likelihood of being there (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Crime and place theory looks into the interactions of burglars with their social and physical environments influencing burglars choices of targets. Conversely, according to crime and place theory, how respective targets come to know of burglars influences the distribution of burglary crime events over time and space. This occurs because burglars engage in custom activities. Just like other non-burglars, burglars move among the spheres of work, shopping, school and recreation. As they engage in their normal and routine activities, they also become aware of crime opportunities (Anderson, 1998). Therefore, burglary criminal opportunities not near the areas burglars routinely move through have a less likelihood to come to their attention (Capone Nichols 1996). A given burglar will be aware of only possible targets available. Criminal opportunities present at places coming to the attention of burglars have an increased risk of literally becoming targets (Barr Pease, 1990). While a few burglars may aggressively look for uncharted areas, most conduct their searches precisely within the areas they are familiar in the event of their no n-criminal activities. In learning more on this, it is good to note that, the concept of place is essential to burglary theories. Not only are places rationally required (a burglar should be in a place when a burglary crime is committed), their individual characteristics influence the possibility of a burglary crime. Place characteristics discussed in the crime and place theory include the effectiveness and presence of managers and the being there of capable guardians. Crime and place theory links places with enviable targets and the context found by focusing on the way places come to the attention of burglars. Conversely, sub cultural theory explains burglary crime differently, arguing that certain subcultures or groups in the society have attitudes and values that are conducive to burglary crime, as well as violence (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). The primary focus of this theory is, however, on juvenile delinquency because the supporting theorists believe that if this offending pattern can be, controlled and understood it will stop or minimize the possibilities of the transition from teenage offender to actually, experienced habitual criminal (Barr Pease, 1990). This applies most in the context of burglary where it starts mostly at the teenage age and develops into an experienced burglar and a thief. Some theories are functionalist and assume that criminal activity such as burglary generates motivation from economic needs, while for other theorists; they posit a social class deviance rationale. On the other hand, culture represents the customs values and norms, which guide behavior and act as a general framework of judging behavior by the majority. It transmits to individuals socially than biologically. The burglary crime in this case focuses on misplaced norms and values of particular individuals where they engage in the act through social influence. Unlike the crime and place theory, this is the case of social transmissions and not individual decisions (Barr Pease, 1990). A subculture is an idiosyncratic culture within a given culture, so its values and norms differ from the broad culture but do not represent necessarily a culture deemed as deviant. This would represent a burglars social culture within any given culture (Anderson, 1998). A subculture distinguishes itself from a counterculture operating in direct opposition to the broad culture meaning that, this is why burglars practice the same. Social Disorganization Theory and Cultural Transmission Theory argue that, in the poorest city zones, certain behavioral forms become the cultural norm, which transmits from a generation to the other, as part of the socialization process (White, 1990). This is somehow similar with the place theory that posits a similar argument. Successful criminals are relatively the role models of the young, who demonstrate both the possibilities of success through burglary crime, and its normality. There is also more literature detailing on Sub cultural Theory. Sub cultural Theory just like the crime and place theory proposes that the urban setting makes it difficult for people living there to find ways of creating a sound community because of the prevailing anonymity and alienation (Grandjean, 1990). The cultural structure experiences the majority norms forcing individuals to form communities quite different and new from the culture. This explains why burglars have a tendency to live a different life from the normal person in the same broad culture. More lately, Fischer (1995) through a case study conducted among few cities on the subject of crime projected that the size, heterogeneity and population of cities strengthens groups, encouraging the subcultures formation, which are more diverse in nature when comparing to the general culture (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Fischer refers a subculture as, a set of people sharing a defining trait, relate with one another, are the institut ions members associated with their central trait, adhering to a set of values, sharing a set of tools and taking part in an ordinary way of life (Anderson, 1998). Conversely, it is possible to argue that for burglary, the practice is not exceedingly common in less densely populated areas as well as in less diverse environments. Generally, the creation of subcultures such as burglar groups would be almost impossible in such areas (Barr Pease, 1990). Nevertheless, ethnic minorities, the artistic avant-garde, professionals, displaced agricultural families, among others come to live in cities typifying their lifestyles to that of cities, which is why burglary is increasing in the urban areas even with the same people coming from less practice areas. Albert K. Cohen (1955) looked at the general delinquency subculture, with a focus on gang delinquency among the youth working class in slum areas using a case study, which developed an idiosyncratic culture as a direct response to their lack of social and economic opportunity within the broad U.S. society. The features of the subculture were anti-utilitarian with many cases having no profit motive in burglary or other crimes. Their main intention was fostering peer bonding by sharing the breaking laws experience (Boggs, 1965). They also featured collective reaction formation with the gang inverting the values of the broad culture, deliberately practicing the American Dream mirror image. The other significant feature was malice with many acts of vandalism as well as property damage motivated by contempt, spite and personal intentions. Among other features was short-termism and group autonomy (White, 1990). This explains vividly the principal features of burglary groups as well as how they feature within the broad culture. Justifying the same, Cohen (1958) in his survey on juveniles and crime argued this in terms extremely similar to Strain Theory. He said that general education taught the young to strive hard for social status through achievements academically but, when most of failed, this encouraged status frustration, inverting middle-class norms and values and striking back at the system, which initially let them down. In this context, burglary is similarly explained the same way (Barr Pease, 1990). Out of desperation and following a feeling of regret, the population within the broad culture turns to practices such as burglary to earn a living and better their lives. Middle class ideals stress success, independence, academic achievement, control of aggression, delayed gratification, and respect for property. Lower class guardians and parents encourage distinctive values and norms in their children. In lower class families, planning and ambition must give way to particularly pressing issues (Boggs , 1965). Conversely, Miller (1958, 1959) did agree with Cohen after he did a case study on juvenile delinquency among the youth aged 15-20 years that there was a subculture of delinquency, but argued that this arose from the lower class life because of the dominant strains they experience. In this context, he was of the opinion that burglars are mostly among the low life individuals in an attempt to make a living (Buerger, 1992). There was a clear differentiation in values between the social classes. The middle class is social goal oriented and achievement, and the lower class guardians foremost concern is that children stay out of trouble, because this was prominent among them (Maher Sherman, 1992). In his argument, he explains that Boys are expected to be particularly tough as well as street-smart which is why they are the majority in the burglary acts than girls. This is a significant reason why boys join gangs more than the girls do because they have an incentive of joining a gang such a s a burglary gang (Barr Pease, 1990). In making it clear, Barr Pease (1990), conducted a focus group discussion and contribute d to the same by offering more explanations. They say that given that the boy ordinary lives become boring, the excitement of criminal acts such as burglary becomes a welcome relief, which bring in a sense of autonomy denying any form of social controls, which are, imposed by the broad culture (Anderson, 1998). For the lower class group, another institution generally plays a crucial role the identical sex peer group is more pertinent to the individual than the family, school or work because it offers precisely a sense of belonging, and a route to achieve status, which they cannot achieve easily in mainstream society (Boggs, 1965). Therefore, the individuals can easily engage in gangs as burglar gangs to achieve some sense of identity. Thus, delinquency is actually not a reaction against established middle class values but generally as a means of living up to their expectations culturally for sma rtness and toughness (Buerger, 1992). On the other hand, David Matza (1964) is another excellent scholar who used a case study on juvenile delinquency and its perpetrators arguing that, rather than committing to delinquency, people drift between unconventional and conventional behavior. The initial socialization introduces an understanding of expectations and a feeling of guilt if the expectations are not met, but that people develop techniques of neutralization, therefore, avoiding the guilt feeling (Hannah, 1992). To some extent, society helps to neutralize the guilt through passing blame to the parents for failing to supervise their children properly. Matza also argued that the rummage around for excitement is particularly classless. It is simply that the youth in the working class have fewer opportunities for precisely legitimate activities (Boggs, 1965). To him, therefore, burglary practice is prominent among societies because the youth are idle and nothing to do for leisure therefore turning to crime (Buerger, 1992 ). In other words, deviancy of such kind is fun for them, and they love being in such groups. There is a specific excitement in free will practice and breaking rules knowing well that there is little or no chance of being caught (Anderson, 1998). Therefore, the youth in the burglary practice care lees of what happens next after they engage in such crimes. This implies a level of rational choice within particular structural constraints (Gabor, 1990). The burglars are individuals who generally feel powerless and want something to compensate for that meaning that they devote in doing such crimes. The same people are tired of being, pushed around simply feeling like defying the general system (White, 1990). Burglars in this context care less of the group they join just to facilitate their enjoyment. Additionally, Stanley Cohen (1972) did a study on the youth of London in the 1970s. His examination entailed the immediate context of determining how two different subcultures reacted to the respective changes, which occur in their community (Anderson, 1998). His suggestions were that the Mod reaction for the individuals was to the ideology of affluence. They wanted to illustrate that they had money and knew the way to spend it (Clarke, 1998). In contrast, skinheads generally looked back to the traditional working community. Each generation generally tries to find employment or relatively adapts to unemployment. However, the 1920s had different economic circumstances. Cohen reflected that youth in such situations develop a cultural style as a means to cope with their exacting circumstances and to resist the dominant societal values (Buerger, 1992). This casts the youth working class as the standard-bearers of the relative class struggle. After learning, this it is important to note that there is little that youth can do to change society in real terms, but continued resistance offers subjective satisfaction that is evident through style: haircuts, music, the clothes, and language of the distinctive youth cultures. Cohen argued that generally, these styles have a meaning. This is an application of Sub cultural Theory by Marx, which synthesized the structuralism with the Labeling Theory (Boggs, 1965). The approach places significant emphasis on the youth culture contents and on the differences from the class background. The assumption in this case is that a capitalist society tries to achieve hegemony through using the societal cultural values for their benefit. In the application, the sub cultural theory espouses that the burglary practice is different from one cultural group to the other. The social development features in each group distinctively and is, shared among the members. Conversely, Frederic (1927: 46) studied criminal gangs in a systematic way, with an analysis of gang activity as well as behavior using a case study. He made a definition of gangs by the process that they go through in forming a group: The criminal gang is an interstitial cultural group formed spontaneously originally, and then holds together through conflict. It has characteristics such as meeting face to face, conflict, milling, and planning (Boggs, 1965). The result of this behavior is collectively the development of tradition, esprit de corps, unreflective internal structure, solidarity, group awareness, morale, and local territory attachment. He maintained that criminal gangs naturally originate during the early adolescent years from unprompted playgroups that get into various forms of mischief. They become criminal gangs when they stimulate opposition and disapproval, therefore, acquiring a more explicit group-consciousness (Duffala, 1996). Like Merton and Durkheim, Thrasher de scribed the way the environment can be favorable to delinquent behavior, that criminal gang subcultures arose in the relative cracks, or interstices, of neglect combined with the cracks of identity occurring in the turbulent adolescence years (Carroll Weaver, 1996). Additionally, in application to the context, burglary groups form spontaneously and start early in the adolescence years. Shaw (1930) in a study on criminal gangs in Chicago described criminal delinquency as activity that transmitted from generally older to younger youth with the jails and streets of Chicago as their classrooms (Buerger, 1992). Thrasher did confirm the work of Shaw with most gangs in the transition zone with the chief incidence of unemployment, single-parent families, multiple family dwellings, low levels of education and welfare cases. These were the ghetto, the slums, and the barrios and his evidence of an approximated 1,313 gangs with an approximated 25,000 members found a distinct way of acquiring an identity. The gangs became a youths group of reference where main values, and goals were formed offering a sense of self-esteem. Under this context, the burglars form groups just to appreciate identity and develop some form of the contentions (Buerger, 1992). Conclusion Burglary can be explained using two theories of social ecology including Crime, place, Strain, and sub cultural theories. The two theories are significant in explaining Burglary as a crime but espouse the ideas differently. The theories critically compare and contrast in their explanation of burglary as a local crime. The common argument in these theories is that burglary practices are dependent of the area of operation, the individual as well as the routine activity, rational choice and crime pattern. The main difference is the reason why such crimes persist in different conditions. It is worth acknowledging that theories of burglary crime are mutually supportive in different respects, they give rise to divergent explanations of crime at particular locations. Given the prevalent high-crime locations, a crime theorist focus on how burglars gain and discover access to the place. The burglary explanations focus on the behaviors of the targets as well as the absence of controllers inclu ding place managers, guardians, and handlers. Generally, crime and place explains Burglary in the context of the location of the crime itself while sub cultural theory explains burglary crime differently, arguing that certain subcultures or groups in the society have attitudes and values that are conducive to burglary crime, as well as violence.

Vestibular System :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Vestibular System Athletes must accomplish amazing feats of balance and coordination of the body. As scientist, Mikhail Tsaytin discovered in the 1970s, acrobats can successfully make a two person human tower in the dark, but after adding a third acrobat, not even the most talented can maintain the balance required to keep the tower intact while in the dark (1). What does darkness have to do with it? The point is that balance relies on at least three signals coming from the body, and one of those is sight. Once you eliminate one of these signals, the body cannot accomplish the required task. In addition to sight, signals coming from muscles and joints, called proprioceptors are sensitive to changes in position. The third contributor to the human tower and the topic of discussion of this paper is the vestibular system. A three-person human tower in the dark must not have enough information coming from the vestibular and proprioceptive systems to function without vision, whereas the two-person tower did have enough information. The ear houses some of the most sensitive organs in the body. The physics of sound is well understood, while the mechanics of how the inner ear translates sound waves into neurotransmitters that then communicate to the brain is still incomplete. Because the vestibular labyrinth and the auditory structure are formed very early in the development of the fetus and the fluid pressure contained within both of them is mutually dependant, a disorder in one of the two reciprocating structures affects the (2). The vestibular system accomplishes three tasks. First, it contributes to an individualà ­s sense of equilibrium in relation to the force of gravity and thus adds to the subjective sense of motion and spatial orientation. Second, inputs coming from the vestibular system convey information to the bodyà ­s muscles and posture. Third, while head and body are in motion, the vestibular system controls eye movements so that images remain steady and in focus. This is called the vestibular-ocular reflex. These tasks are accomplished through the mechnoreceptors of the three semicircular canals, the utricle and the saccule (3). Like the neighboring auditory system, each canal has hair cells that detect minute changes in fluid displacement, but unlike the auditory system, the utricle and the saccule send information to the brain regarding linear acceleration and head tilt. Shaking your head à «noà ­ employs one of these canals. Likewise, there is a canal that detects head movement in the à «yesà ­ position, and there is yet another semicircular canal that detects motion from moving your head from shoulder to shoulder (4).

A character analysis of john irving’s novel ‘a prayer for owen meany Essay

Applying to the theme of religious faith and personal fate in his famous novel A Prayer for Owen Meany, John Irving discusses this crucial issue through the narrator John Wheelwright whose unusual understanding of God and extreme political views uncover inner doubts of people in relation to Christianity. In this regard, John Wheelwright is portrayed as a person who is lost in his wrong worship and who is destroyed by his obsession of his closest friend Owen Meany, failing to find the true meaning of his life. In the novel A Prayer for Owen Meany John Wheelwright, the offspring of the noble family, uncovers the story of his upbringing, religious faith and his relations with Owen Meany who is usually treated by the narrator as a symbol of Christianity. In fact, John’s belief in God is based not on his faith, but on his belief in Owen Meany. As the narrator claims at the beginning of the novel, â€Å"I am a Christian because of Owen Meany. I make no claims to have a life in Christ, or with Christ – and certainly not for Christ, which I’ve heard some zealots claim† (Irving 1). John acknowledges that he has no profound knowledge of the Bible, although he regularly visits the Church and is used to repeat some passages from this Holy book. Such a contradictory attitude towards Christian religion reveals inner doubts of John, his inability to accept all religious dogmas created by the Church and his attempts to form his own belief. This is especially obvious from the following words of John Wheelwright: â€Å"†¦ but every study of the gods, of everyone’s gods, is a revelation of vengeance toward the innocent (This is a part of my particular faith that meets with opposition from my Congregationalist and Episcopalian and Anglican friends)† (Irving 7). Thus, the narrator eliminates some wrong assumptions of Christianity, substituting them with his own concepts and demonstrating his ironical attitude towards the existing images of gods. Applying to such a portrayal of the principal character, Irving makes an attempt to show that a person’s fate depends on his/her actions and his/her ability to critically evaluate social and religious systems of the modern world. But despite his acquired wisdom, John is unable to accept reality; instead he constantly returns to the past, failing to accept the changes that occur in the present. As John Wheelwright rightfully states, â€Å"Your memory is a monster; you forget – it doesn’t. It simply files things away. It keeps things for you, or hides things from you – and summons them to your recall with a will of its own. You think you have a memory; but it has you! † (Irving 35). As a result, in his middle age John appears to occupy a neutral position in life, while his friend Owen Meany is overwhelmed with powerful emotions and energy in his religious activity. Despite the fact that John claims to believe in God, he also expresses anger towards his religious faith and opposes Regan ruling. John is greatly influenced by Owen, but deep inside he is not able to decide whether there is God or not; it is this doubt that makes John claim at the end of the novel: â€Å"watch out for people who call themselves religious; make sure you know what they mean – make sure they know what they mean† (Irving 572). The writer intentionally repeats the phrase two times to intensify the meaning of the whole narration and to reveal the importance of a personal choice; John is so influenced by Owen’s faith that he is not able to overcome the limitations of Christian dogmas and seek his own understanding of some crucial issues of existence. On the other hand, inner doubts of the narrator contribute to the formation of such negative traits as self loss and indecisiveness in him. As John Wheelwright points out in the letter to Owen, â€Å"You’re always telling me I don’t have any faith†¦ Well – don’t you see – that’s a part of what makes me so indecisive. I wait to see what will happen next – because I don’t believe that anything I might decide to do would matter† (Irving 504). Perhaps, John’s childhood experience results in his self loss and his unusual worship of Owen; the narrator constantly wants to find out the truth about his father, but mother’s death deprives John of this opportunity. Simultaneously, John losses both his parents and long-expected truth, hoping that somehow God in the face of Owen will give him the clue to his birth. However, as John becomes older, he finds it impossible to blindly follow everything that he believed in youth; for instance, when at the end of the narration Mr. Meany tells that Owen appeared as a result of a virgin birth and, thus, was similar to Christ, John expresses doubts as to this news. In fact, throughout the novel the narrator makes an attempt to overcome his doubts and understand the essence of religion, but he fails to find an appropriate balance between his doubts and his religious belief. The death of Owen relieves John of the necessity to differentiate between two excesses. However, John Wheelwright still has to decide whether to believe in the existence of God or not, but the novel ends without this answer. The narrator’s ambiguity intensifies the narration, revealing that John is psychologically destroyed by certain events of his life. Although John tells the story of another person, he implicitly expresses his views on some religious and political issues, demonstrating his inability to overcome the events that occurred with him in the past. Searching for his identity, John tries to explain his profound relations with Owen and his unusual religious faith, but his explanation is rather complicated. John makes an attempt to understand Owen and his belief in God, but everything that the narrator manages to achieve is intricacy. As John claims at the end of the novel, â€Å"How could Owen Meany have known what he ‘knew’? It’s no answer, of course, to believe in accidents, or in coincidences; but is God really a better answer? † (Irving 571). Thus, on the one hand, the narrator challenges the necessity to believe in God, but, on the other hand, John Wheelwright continues to pray for Owen Meany’s resurrection. To some extent, John explains this ambiguity at the beginning of the narration: â€Å"I was baptized in the Congregational Church, and after some years of fraternity with the Episcopalian†¦ I became rather weak in my religion: in my teens I attended a non-denomination church. Then I became an Anglican† (Irving 1). The variety of churches that John attended contributed to John’s inability to choose; this inability concerns not only his religious views, but also his political and social concepts. John believes in God only in view of Owen’s religious belief, he criticizes political leaders and their actions through Owen’s understanding of political events. As John remembers, â€Å"The only way you can get Americans to notice anything is to tax them or draft them or kill them, Owen said† (Irving 431). John’s life appears to be closely connected with Owen’s life and ideas, and after Owen’s death, Johns finds it difficult to live. Although John builds new life in Canada, finds an interesting job and constantly visits church, he feels that he lacks something important, the sense of life that he had while Owen was alive. In his middle age the narrator has no family and no sexual relations with women; he criticizes Iran scandal and the Vietnam War. His worship of Owen destroys John’s personality, depriving him of the possibility to create a personal life; as John admits, â€Å"I make no claims to be especially pious; I have a church-rummage faith – the kind that needs patching up every weekend. What faith I have I owe to Owen Meany, a boy I grew up with. It is Owen who made me a believer† (Irving 2). Throughout the narration Irving implicitly shows that such worship may be dangerous for a person, especially if it is formed in early childhood and youth; this childhood worship may destroy a person in adulthood. As John narrates of his early years and of his present life, he simultaneously reveals various psychological problems; he is a person who is unable to adjust to the existing political and social life in Canada, rejecting his status as an American citizen. The narrator is not able to find his true self, because he chooses wrong paths and wrong ways, although, contrary to Owen, he belongs to a well-known family that lives in New Hampshire. According to John, â€Å"I was a Wheelwright – that was the family name that counted in our town: the Wheelwrights† (Irving 6). However, growing up in a rather unconventional family, John follows the faith chosen by his best friend Owen, but his belief in God is different from Owen’s belief. John believes in a person who embodies God, but not in God, and this personification deprives John of the possibility to find true faith that will help him to overcome his inner problems. John’s criticism of Regan ruling is based on the fact of Owen’s death rather than on any specific political ideology. He does not want to accept Owen’s death and he implicitly accuses American government in his friend’s death. This oddness of the narrator is exposed to harsh satire by Irving who reveals the impact of worship on the behavior and thinking of John Wheelwright. Other characters of the novel explain John’s psychological problems as a result of his complex childhood: â€Å"You keep doing that and you’ll make yourself sterile’, said my cousin Hester, to whom every event of our shared childhood was either sexually exhilarating or sexually damaging† (Irving 54). Thus, Irving applies to some aspects of psychoanalysis in his portrayal of John, trying to find several explanations of his unusual behavior. John’s childhood experience and especially his ambiguous religious faith transform the narrator into a cripple. As John moves to Canada, he leads a secluded life there, working as a teacher of English, but being obsessed with his thoughts and recollections. John’s criticism of social and political life conceals his anger as to Owen’s death; although he accuses American government and God in this tragedy, he hurts himself for this death. Being a virgin in his middle age, the narrator reveals powerful emotions only when he reads some facts about crimes in the United States, as if seeking relief in the news that manage to suppress his pain. However, nothing can give John a hope after Owen’s death; his friendship with Owen was so prolonged and so strong that John continued to feel the presence of Owen. Even after death Owen influences John and controls all his actions, although only on a spiritual level. John Wheelwright believes in Owen’s support as if Owen is God; in fact, the narrator identifies Owen with an image of God, hoping that one day they will meet again. When Owen implicitly helps him to find his father and his identity, John is convinced of Owen’s divine origin, feeling that â€Å"Owen Meany was very near† (Irving 542). The mystery of his birth troubles the narrator, he is in search of various ways to find out the truth, because he feels that he is not able to lead a normal life without recognizing his origin. John’s faith in Owen is so powerful that he believes that Owen saves his life several times throughout the narration. Owen is John’s closest friend, despite the fact that Owen is the reason of the death of John’s mother. Creating a new life in Canada, John constantly thinks how Owen would act in various circumstances. In this regard, Irving demonstrates that John’s faith in Owen is intensified after Owen’s death; John is unable to forget a person who accompanied and supported him for many years. Through Owen, John tries to find answers to some crucial issues of existence. In his early years John makes constant attempts to repeat everything after his friend; however, he feels that he is not able to be like Owen, although he admires him. In his adulthood John also follows Owen’s advice, moving to Canada and finding a place in the Bishop Strachan High School. Thus, it is Owen who controls John’s fate, considering that he has such a right. Applying to a rather prosaic speech, the narrator contrasts himself to Owen and his inner power. The narrator even emphasizes Owen’s words throughout the novel, trying to prove Owen’s greatness and his impact on John’s personality. Owen’s authority is explicitly vivid, as the novel progresses, but Owen dies, failing to realize that, to some extent, his influence on John possesses some negative features. The fact is that faith inspired by Owen in the heart of John destroys the narrator, because this faith is a label that is not able to provide the character with real belief and understanding of the world around him. John appears to depend much on Owen, being unable to lead an independent life and experiencing considerable insecurity. When John has to take a decision, he applies to Owen for advice or simply evaluates something from Owen’s point of view. After Owen’s death John starts to believe that there are no coincidences in this world, everything is predestined; the similar words are expressed by Owen when he was alive: â€Å"Owen Meany believed that ‘coincidence’ was a stupid, shallow refuge sought by stupid, shallow people who were unable to accept the fact that their lives were shaped by a terrifying and awesome design† (Irving 186). However, following Owen’s thoughts, John Wheelwright ignores the profound understanding of the occurred events; although he accepts the fact of his mother’s death from the hands of Owen, he does not want to think why God punishes him in such a way. John seems to be the only person who has such a strong belief in Owen and in miracles that are connected with him. In this regard, the narrator evokes sympathy, because his wrong worship saved him only in early years. In adulthood he experiences discomfort over many things; although John claims to believe in God, he does not really understand the essence of Christian religion. Although he criticizes some political events, he does nothing to change the situation; for instance, he prefers to injure himself to avoid taking part in Vietnam War. The narrator is afraid of being destroyed by this War, but in reality he is destroyed by Owen. Throughout the narration John expresses contradictory viewpoints as to certain aspects of life; in particular, at the beginning of the novel he tells that faith should not be based on any miracles, but finally he accepts these miracles as an integral part of his own faith. Despite the fact that John constantly cites some passages from the Bible, he admits that he does not really know this Holy book; he simply wants to support the ideas of Owen with these passages. Thus, the narrator does not sincerely believe in God and he does not take part in any social or political activity. John Wheelwright lives in his own secluded world, keeping other people out of this world and believing only in Owen. John’s faith is intertwined with inner doubts, and faith can not survive if these doubts are not suppressed. True faith is based on trust, but Owen expresses the contrary idea that evokes doubts in the narrator. According to Owen, â€Å"That isn’t exactly what faith is†¦ I don’t believe everything that pops into my head – faith is a little more selective than that† (Irving 472). In fact, John does not realize his dependence on Owen until Owen’s death, he does not realize his weakness, and he has to face the consequences of his ignorance. As the narrator writes to Owen, â€Å"What good does it do to make whatever decision you’re talking about? What good does courage do – when what happens next is up for grabs? † (Irving 504). As a result of his dependence on Owen, John is afraid of life, he is afraid of any changes that may destroy his little world. Growing up with Owen in New Hampshire, John feels that this friendship is the only thing that supports him throughout his life. The narrator is not able to broaden his horizons and find other interesting things; his strange worship prevents him from finding the true meaning of life. John’s life is reflected in Owen’s life, thus, despite the fact that Owen and John share the similar life principles, their ways of life are different, as John has no personal life, he simply makes an attempt to resemble Owen. Contrary to Owen who manages to find the goal in life, John is unable to understand his own predestination. The narrator lives in the light of Owen, failing to find his own light; as a result, his life is spiritually destroyed after Owen’s death. Although John brings up some life issues, he is not able to understand what is crucial in his own life. Thus, at the end of the narration John turns to prayers, as if hoping to find solace in them, to find the meaning of his further life, but he is still full of doubts that prevent him from accepting reality. Although John Wheelwright is already an adult, to some extent, he remains a little boy who is in search of comfort and understanding and who needs another person to guide him through life. With Owen’s death, John collides with inner conflicts, concerning his faith. Perhaps, these conflicts can be explained by the fact that absolute faith created by Owen Meany is impossible for such persons as John; he is not Owen, although he tries to resemble him. John’s upbringing and life experience are different from that of Owen’s, thus John fails to fully believe in the things believed by Owen. Due to John’s inner doubts and inability to create a personal life, John usually turns to sarcasm in his evaluation of certain events. Instead of analyzing political or religious issues, the narrator treats them through his personal experience. Thus, John’s insight is restricted by his infirm intellect; the faith that he seems to have does not shed light on the narrator’s life; instead it transforms him into a person who experiences constant pain and obvious displeasure. Unlike Owen who finds power and inspiration in his belief, John is unable to experience the similar inspiration. He appears to be a tool in the hands of Owen who utilizes the narrator to his own liking, persuading John that he is a God’s instrument. It is Owen who performs home tasks for John, it is Owen who makes him receive a major degree in English, it is Owen who saves him from Vietnam and who persuades him to move to Canada. John is so used to this guidance and dependence that he does not realize that Owen manipulates him, depriving John of the possibility to become a mature adult in his middle age. Influenced by Owen, John Wheelwright prefers to keep in the background of Owen’s life, implicitly challenging the issues of true faith. Works Cited Irving, John. A Prayer for Owen Meany. New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1990.

English Renaissance Drama Essay Example

English Renaissance Drama Essay Example English Renaissance Drama Essay English Renaissance Drama Essay Essay Topic: The Bean Eaters Twelfth Night English Renaissance play grew out of the established Medieval tradition of the enigma and morality dramas. These public eyeglassess focused on spiritual topics and were by and large enacted by either choristers and monastics. or a town’s shopkeepers ( as subsequently seen fondly memorialized by Shakespeare’s mechanicals’ in A Midsummer Night’s Dream ) . At the terminal of the 15th century. a new type of drama appeared. These short dramas and revels were performed at baronial families and at tribunal. particularly at holiday times. These short amusements. called Interludes . started the move off from the didactic nature of the earlier dramas toward strictly secular dramas. and frequently added more comedy than was present in the medieval predecessors. Since most of these vacation revels were non documented and play texts have disappeared and been destroyed. the existent dating of the passage is hard. The first extant strictly secular drama. Henry Medwall’s Fulgens and Lucres. was performed at the family of Cardinal Morton. where the immature Thomas More was functioning as a page. Early Tudor interludes shortly grew more luxuriant. integrating music and dance. and some. particularly those by John Heywood. were to a great extent influenced by Gallic travesty. Not merely were dramas switching accent from learning to entertaining. they were besides easy altering focal point from the spiritual towards the political. John Skelton’s Magnyfycence ( 1515 ) . for illustration. while on the face of it resembling the mediaeval fable dramas with its characters of Virtues and Vices. was a political sarcasm against Cardinal Wolsey. Magnyfycence was so incendiary that Skelton had to travel into the sanctuary of Westminster to get away the wrath of Wolsey. The first history dramas were written in the 1530’s. the most noteworthy of which was John Bale’s King Johan. While it considered affairs of morality and faith. these were handled in the visible radiation of the Reformation. These dramas set the case in point of showing history in the dramatic medium and laid the foundation for what would subsequently be elevated by Marlowe and Shakespeare into the English History Play. or Chronicle Play. in the latter portion of the century. Not merely was the Reformation taking clasp in England. but the air currents of Classical Humanism were brushing in from the Continent. Interest grew in the classics and the dramas of classical antiquity. particularly in the universities. Latin texts were being Englysshed and Latin poesy and dramas began to be adapted into English dramas. In 1553. a headmaster named Nicholas Udall wrote an English comedy titled Ralph Roister Doister based on the traditional Latin comedies of Plautus and Terence. The drama was the first to present the Latin character type stat mis gloriosus ( braggart soldier ) into English dramas. honed to flawlessness subsequently by Shakespeare in the character of Falstaff. Around the same clip at Cambridge. the comedy Gammer Gurton’s Needle . perchance by William Stevens of Christ’s College. was diverting the pupils. It paid closer attending to the construction of the Latin dramas and was the first to follow the five-act division. Writers were besides developing English calamities for the first clip. influenced by Greek and Latin authors. Among the first forays into English calamity were Richard Edwards’ Damon and Pythias ( 1564 ) and John Pickering’s New Interlude of Vice Incorporating the History of Horestes ( 1567 ) . The most influential author of classical calamities. nevertheless. was the Roman playwright Seneca. whose plants were translated into English by Jasper Heywood. boy of dramatist John Heywood. in 1589. Seneca’s plays incorporated rhetorical addresss. blood and force. and frequently shades ; constituents which were to calculate conspicuously in both Elizabethan and Jacobean play. The first outstanding English calamity in the Senecan mold was Gorboduc ( 1561 ) . written by two attorneies. Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton. at the Inns of Court ( schools of jurisprudence ) . Apart from following Senecan conventions and construction. the drama is most of import as the first English drama to be in clean poetry. Blank poetry. non-rhyming lines in iambic pentameter. was introduced into English literature by sonneteers Wyatt and Surrey in the 1530’s. Its usage in a work of dramatic literature paved the manner for Marlowe’s mighty line and the keen poesy of Shakespeare’s dramatic poetry. With a new swayer on the throne. Queen Elizabeth I. who enjoyed and encouraged the theatrical humanistic disciplines. the phase was set for the organic structure of dramatic literature we today name Elizabethan Drama. The Social and Political Climate In 1600. the metropolis of London had a population of 245. 000 people. twice the size of Paris or Amsterdam. Playwriting was the least personal signifier of authorship. but clearly the most profitable for literary work forces since the demand was so great: 15. 000 people attended the wendy houses hebdomadally. What is frequently exploited in the dramas is the tenseness between a Court civilization and a commercial civilization. which in bend reflected the tenseness between the City authorities and the Crown. The period from 1576 ( day of the month of the first public theater in London ) to 1642 ( day of the month that the Puritans closed the theaters ) is alone in its end product and quality of literature in English. The monarchy rested on two claims: that it was of godly beginning and that it governed by consent of the people. The period was one of great passage. This period of history is by and large regarded as the English Renaissance. which took topographic point about 100 old ages subsequently than on the continent. The period besides coincides with the Reformation. and the two epochs are of class reciprocally related. Imposed upon the Elizabethans was a societal hierarchy of order and degree- very much medieval constructs that existed more in signifier than in substance. The society of Shakespeare’s clip had in many ways broken free of these rigidnesss. It was non that people were rejecting the yesteryear ; instead. a new more stiff order was replacing the old. This was set into gesture during Henry VIII’s reign in the 1530s when he assumed more power than had hitherto been known to the monarchy. The Act of Supremacy of 1534 gave to Henry the power of the Church every bit good as temporal power. By Shakespeare’s clip the province had asserted its right in trying to derive authorization in secular and religious affairs likewise. The alleged Tudor myth had sought to warrant actions by the Crown. and choices for the monarchy. as God-sanctioned: to queer those determinations was to transgress. because these people were selected by God. The population of the City quadrupled from Henry VIII’s reign to the terminal of Shakespeare’s life ( 1616 ) . therefore adding to the necessity for civil control and jurisprudence. The disintegration of the monasteries had caused much civil agitation. and the homeless monastics and nuns had been forced to come in the work force. Thus the employment. or unemployment. job was severe. Puritanism. which foremost emerged early in Elizabeth’s reign. was a minority force of clerics. Members of Parliament. and others who felt that the Anglican Reformation had stopped abruptly of its end. Puritans used the Bible as a usher to carry on. non merely to faith. but to political and societal life. and since they could read it in their ain linguistic communication. it took on for them a greater importance than it had of all time held. They stressed peculiarly the thought of retrieving the Sabbath twenty-four hours. The struggle between the Puritans and the players of the theatre- who performed for the larger crowds that would turn out for productions on the Sabbath- was established early. The Elizabethan Worldview The English Renaissance began with the importing of Italian art and doctrine. Humanism. during the reign of Henry VIII. Henry Howard. Earl of Surrey. imported and translated classical Hagiographas. such as Virgil’s Aeneid. the first English work to utilize Blank Verse. Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt in their sonnets besides imitated classical authors such as Petrarch. and are credited as Fathers of the English Sonnet. While the Great Chain of Being ( an thought suggested from antiquity ; all that exists is in a created order. from the lowest possible class to flawlessness. God Himself ) was still asserted. the antonym. the world of upset. was merely as prevalent. Not surprisingly. a favourite metaphor in Shakespeare’s plants is the universe upside down. much as Hamlet nowadayss. The analogical manner was the predominating rational construct for the epoch. which was inherited from the Middle Ages: the analogical wont of head. with its correspondences. hierarchies. and microcosmic-macrocosmic relationships. survived from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. Levels of being. including human and cosmic. were habitually correlated. and correspondences and resemblances were perceived everyplace. Man was a go-between between himself and the existence. An analogy of being likened adult male to God ; nevertheless. the Reformation sought to alter this position. stressing man’s fallen nature and darkness of ground. The analogy can be seen in the London theater. correlating the disparate planes of Earth ( the phase ) . snake pit ( the cellarage ) . and heaven ( the heavens. projecting above the top of the phase ) . Degree. precedence. and topographic point were afforded all elements. depending on their distance from flawlessness. God. Because he possessed both psyche and organic structure. adult male had a alone topographic point in the chain- the extremes of human potency are everyplace apparent in the play of the English Renaissance. Natural devolution. in contrast to our optimistic thought of advancement. was everyplace in grounds too- the crude Edenic golden age was unrecoverable. and the predicted terminal of the universe was at hand. With alterations in the ways that adult male looked at his existence. upseting finds suggested mutableness and corruptness: the terrorizing consequence of new stars. comets. etc. . added to a pessimism that anticipated marks of decay as revelatory omens of nearing cosmopolitan disintegration. Hierarchically. the human psyche was threefold: the highest. or rational psyche. which adult male on Earth possessed unambiguously ; the animal. or appetitive psyche. which adult male shared with lower animate beings ; and the lowest. or vegetive ( vegetable ; alimentary ) psyche. concerned chiefly with reproduction and growing. The psyche was facilitated in its work by the body’s three chief variety meats. liver. bosom. and encephalon: the liver served the soul’s vegetal. the bosom its vital. and the encephalon its carnal faculties- motive. chief virtuousnesss. etc. Man himself was formed by a natural combination of the four elements: the dull elements of Earth and water- both be givening to fall to the centre of the universe- and air and fire- both be givening to lift. When the elements mixed they shaped man’s disposition. Each component possessed two of the four primary qualities which combined into a humour or human disposition: Earth ( cold and dry: melancholy ) . H2O ( cold and moist: phlegmatic ) ; air ( hot and moist: sanguine ) ; fire ( hot and dry: choleric ) . Like his psyche and his temper. man’s organic structure obsessed cosmic affinities: the encephalon with the Moon ; the liver with the planet Jupiter ; the lien with the planet Saturn. Assigned to each of the stars and the domain of fixed stars was a hierarchy of immaterial liquors. angels or devils. On Earth. the fallen angels and Satan. along with such supernatural forces as enchantresss. continued to allure adult male and lead him on to transgress. Familiar to Shakespeare and his coevalss were the Aristotelean four causes: the concluding cause. or aim or stop for which a alteration is made ; the efficient cause. or that by which some alteration is made ; the stuff cause. or that in which a alteration is made ; and formal cause. or that into which something is changed. Renaissance concern with causing may be seen in Polonius’ laboring of the efficient cause of Hamlet’s lunacy. For this consequence faulty comes by cause ( 2. 2. 101-03 ) . In the Aristotelean position. alteration involves a integrity between possible affair and actualized signifier. Change is therefore a procedure of going. affected by a cause which acts determinately towards a end to bring forth a consequence. Implicit in the Elizabethan worldview was the Aristotelean thought of causing as embracing potency and act. affair and head. The London dramatist’s pre-Cartesian existence. so. tended to retain a sense of the sense of purpose of natural objects and their topographic point in the godly strategy. Towards the mid-seventeenth century a major cleft between the medieval-Renaissance world-view and the modern universe position took topographic point. effected by Renee Descartes ( 1596-1650 ) . Cartesian dualism separated off head from affair. and psyche from body- not a new thought. but reformulated so that the theologians’ philosophies became the philosophers’ ; the jobs of Predestination were all of a sudden the jobs of Determinism. For Descartes. all nature was to be explained as either idea or extension ; hence. the head became a strictly intelligent substance. the organic structure a soulless mechanical system. Descartes’ doctrine held that one can cognize merely one’s ain clear and distinguishable thoughts. Objects are of import merely in so far as adult male brings his ain judgements to bear upon them. Cartesian incredulity and subjectivism led to the rejection of the old centuries’ Aristotelean positions. as meaningless or obscure. Harmonizing to Aristotle. to cognize the cause of things was to cognize their nature. For the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. objects influenced each other through common affinities and aversions. Elizabethans accepted the correspondences of understandings and aversions in nature. including a homeopathic impression that like remedies like. Well into the 17th century. alchemical. hermetical. astrological. and other pre-scientific beliefs continued to exercise. even on the heads of distinguished scientists. a discernable influence. Concerned with the demand to believe. in an age of inchoate uncertainty. theater audiences frequently witnessed in calamities such battles to prolong belief: Hamlet has a demand to swear the Ghost ; Lear has a wracked concern for celestial powers ; and Othello feels a despairing necessity to continue his belief in Desdemona- when I love thee non. / Chaos is come again ( 3. 3. 92-3 ) . For Othello and Lear. belief is saneness. Theologically. in the ulterior 16th century. godly Providence seemed progressively to be questioned. or at least to be regarded as more bafflingly cryptic. The mediaeval sense of security was in a procedure of transmutation. Those alterations coincided with such fortunes as the Renaissance resurgence of Epicureanism. which stressed the indifference of the powers above to man’s concerns. In its topographic point was a particular personal power. which was emphasized in the plants of Machiavelli ( 1469-1527 ) and other Renaissance authors. Such alterations in the dealingss of adult male and his divinity necessarily provided a clime for calamity. wherein both godly justness ( as in King Lear ) and meaningful action ( as in Hamlet ) seemed every bit unachievable. Lear appears to oppugn the forces above man’s life. and Hamlet the powers beyond his decease. Hamlet’s undertaking is farther complicated. for illustration. by his meaningless pursuit for action- from a Reformation standpoint- of works toward redemption. The way to redemption. of great concern to most Elizabethans. was non through plants or virtue but by cryptic godly election. The post-Reformation adult male. alienated from the nonsubjective construction of the traditional Church. every bit good as from the release of the confessional. with a burdened and isolated scruples. turned his guilt inward. The Renaissance epistemic crisis emphasized the impression of the relativity of perceptual experience. nowadays in the appearance-versus-reality motive recurrent through Renaissance play. The Renaissance dramatists’ works mark a passage between absolute natural jurisprudence bestowed by God. and relativistic natural jurisprudence. recognized by adult male. The Playhouses The old Medieval phase of place-and-scaffolds. still in usage in Scotland in the early 16th century. had fallen into neglect ; the sort of impermanent phase that was dominant in England about 1575 was the booth phase of the marketplace- a little rectangular phase mounted on trestles or barrels and open in the sense of being surrounded by witnesss on three sides. The phase proper of the booth phase by and large measured from 15 to 25 ft. in breadth and from 10 to 15 ft. in deepness ; its tallness above the land averaged a turn 5 ft. 6 in. . with extremes runing every bit low as 4 ft. and every bit high as 8 ft. ; and it was backed by a cloth-covered booth. normally unfastened at the top. which served as a tiring-house ( short for attiring house. where the histrions dressed ) . In the England of 1575 there were two sorts of edifices. designed for maps other than the playing of dramas. which were adapted by the participants as impermanent out-of-door wendy houses: the animal-baiting rings or game houses ( e. g. Bear Garden ) and the hostel. Presumably. a booth phase was set up against a wall at one side of the pace. with the audience standing in the pace environing the phase on three sides. Out of these natural wendy houses grew two major categories of lasting Elizabethan wendy house. public and private. In general. the public wendy houses were big out-of-door theaters. whereas the private wendy houses were smaller indoor theaters. The maximal capacity of a typical public wendy house ( e. g. . the Swan ) was about 3. 000 witnesss ; that of a typical private wendy house ( e. g. . the Second Blackfriars ) . about 700 witnesss. At the public playhouses the bulk of witnesss were groundlings who stood in the soil pace for a penny ; the balance were sitting in galleries and boxes for two pence or more. At the private wendy houses all witnesss were seated ( in cavity. galleries. and boxes ) and paid tanner or more. In the beginning. the private wendy houses were used entirely by Boys’ companies. but this differentiation disappeared about 1609 when the King’s Men. in abode at the Globe in the summer. began utilizing the Blackfriars in winter. Originally the private wendy houses were found merely within the City of London ( the Paul’s Playhouse. the First and Second Blackfriars ) . the public playhouses merely in the suburbs ( the Theatre. the Curtain. the Rose. the Globe. the Fortune. the Red Bull ) ; but this differentiation disappeared about 1606 with the gap of the Whitefriars Playhouse to the West of Ludgate. Public-theatre audiences. though socially heterogenous. were drawn chiefly from the lower classes- a state of affairs that has caused modern bookmans to mention to the public-theatre audiences as popular ; whereas private-theatre audiences tended to dwell of gentlemen ( those who were university educated ) and aristocracy ; select is the word most normally opposed to popular in this regard. James Burbage. male parent to the celebrated histrion Richard Burbage of Shakespeare’s company. construct the first lasting theater in London. the Theatre. in 1576. He likely simply adapted the signifier of the baiting-house to theatrical demands. To make so he built a big unit of ammunition construction really much like a baiting-house but with five major inventions in the standard signifier. First. he paved the ring with brick or rock. therefore paving the cavity into a yard. Second. Burbage erected a phase in the yard- his theoretical account was the booth phase of the market place. larger than used before. with stations instead than trestles. Third. he erected a lasting tiring-house in topographic point of the booth. Here his head theoretical account was the transition screens of the Tudor domestic hall. They were modified to defy the conditions by the interpolation of doors in the room accesss. Presumably the tiring-house. as a lasting construction. was inset into the frame of the wendy house instead than. as in the older impermanent state of affairs of the booth phase. put up against the frame of a baiting-house. The gallery over the tiring-house ( presumptively divided into boxes ) was capable of functioning diversely as a Lord’s room for privileged or high-paying witnesss. as a music-room. and as a station for the occasional public presentation of action above as. for illustration. Juliet’s balcony. Fourth. Burbage built a cover over the rear portion of the phase. called the Heavens . supported by stations lifting from the pace and surmounted by a hut. And fifth. Burbage added a 3rd gallery to the frame. The theory of beginning and development suggested in the preceding agreements with our main pictural beginning of information about the Elizabethan phase. the De Witt drawing of the inside of the Swan Playhouse ( c. 1596 ) . It seems likely that most of the unit of ammunition public playhouses- specifically. the Theatre ( 1576 ) . the Swan ( 1595 ) . the First Globe ( 1599 ) . the Hope ( 1614 ) . and the Second Globe ( 1614 ) - were of about the same size. The Second Blackfriars Playhouse of 1596 was designed by James Burbage. and he built his wendy house in the upper-story Parliament Chamber of the Upper Frater of the priory. The Parliament Chamber measured 100 ft. in length. but for the wendy house Burbage used merely two-thirds of this length. The room in inquiry. after the remotion of dividers spliting it into flats. measured 46 ft. in breadth and 66 ft. in length. The phase likely measured 29 ft. in breadth and 18 ft. 6 in. in deepness. The Staging Conventions In the private theaters. act-intervals and music between Acts of the Apostless were customary from the beginning. A music-room was at first missing in the public wendy houses. since public-theatre public presentations did non originally use act-intervals and inter-act music. About 1609. nevertheless. after the King’s work forces had begun executing at the Blackfriars every bit good as at the Globe. the usage of inter-act music seems to hold spread from the private to the public wendy houses. and with it seemingly came the usage of utilizing one of the tiring-house boxes over the phase as a music-room. The play was conventional. non realistic: poesy was the most obvious convention. others included asides. monologues. male childs playing the functions of adult females. conflicts ( with merely a few participants ) . the daylight convention ( many scenes are set at dark. though the dramas took topographic point in mid-afternoon under the sky ) . a convention of clip ( the clock and calendar are used merely at the dramatist’s discretion ) . the convention of eavesdropping ( many characters overhear others. which the audience is secluded to but the overheard characters are non ) . and motion from topographic point to topographic point as suggested by the book and the audience’s imaginativeness. Exits were strong. and when everyone departed the phase. a alteration of scene was indicated. There was comparatively small scenery. Scenery was largely implicative ; for illustration. one or two trees standing in for a whole wood. The elaborate costumes- for which companies paid a great trade of money- supplied the colour and pageantry. Minimal scenery and limited costume alterations made the passages between scenes lightning-fast and kept the narrative traveling. There was frequently dancing before and after the play- at times. during. like the peasants’ dance in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale. Jigs were frequently given at the terminal of public presentations. a usage preserved still today at Shakespeare’s Globe. The gigue at the theater were non ever mere dances. they were sometimes comprised of vocals and bawdy knockabout travesties filled with commentaries on current events. Possibly the most celebrated gigue was the 1 performed by Will Kemp. the buffoon in Shakespeare’s company. over a nine twenty-four hours period in 1599. on the route from London to Norwich. It was published in 1600 as Kemps nine twenty-four hourss wonder. After 1600. the bawdry gigue fell into derision and disdain and were merely performed at theaters such as the Red Bull. which catered to an audience appreciative of the lowest wit and most violent action. The buffoons were the great stars of the Elizabethan phase prior to the rise of the celebrated tragedians of the late 1580s. such as Edward ( Ned ) Alleyn and Richard Burbage. Every company had a top buffoon along with the tragedian?hakespeare? company was no exclusion: Richard Tarleton was the buffoon until his decease in 1588. Will Kemp was the buffoon until forced out of the company in 1599. to be replaced by another celebrated buffoon. Robin Armin. The buffoons non merely performed the aforesaid gigue. but besides played many of the great amusing characters ; Kemp most likely played Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing. Armin the parts of Feste in Twelfth Night and the Fool in King Lear. From modern-day paperss. we know there were over a 1000 histrions in England between 1580-1642* . Most were hapless. starving actors . but a few twelve were able to do names for themselves and go stockholders in their several companies. and do a good life. The repertory system was demanding esides playing six yearss a hebdomad. a company would be in continual dry run in order to add new dramas and to review old 1s in their agenda. A participant would likely larn a new function every hebdomad. with 30 to forty functions in his caput. No minor effort. particularly sing that an histrion would merely acquire his lines and cues ( in a rolled up parchment. his roll . from which we get the word role ) . non a whole book! Over a period of three old ages. a tragedian such as Edward Alleyn. lead participant for the Admiral’s Men. would larn non merely 50 new parts but besides retain twenty or more old functions.

Beer, It Does a Body Good.

Beer, It Does a Body Good. On the Grasslands of Africa, the packs of lions turn the grassy feeding ground of the zebra into their slaughterhouse floor. The lions hang back observing the herd. They eye out the old, lame, or very young to maximize their assurance of success. They stay low and out of sight of the zebra, being careful not to be spotted.... Although some zebra will die today, the lions are indirectly assuring that the "herd" of zebras will continue.Darwin believed that by the killing of the weak of a species that the stronger, more vertile of the group would be left. Thus maximizing their ability to feed, multiply, and otherwise function to the maxim of their ability. By the weak zebras dying, they are streamlining the heard and increasing the herds amount of grazing land, not to mention the gene pool being saved from their inferior seed.Just as some in society believe you can take this basic theory and apply it to social issues, a small group as people think we college students can do the same wit h our brains through the mass consumption of alcohol.English: Rose Street Pedestrianised shopping stree...Exactly what is a mass amount? Binge drinking is defined as taking five or more alcoholic drinks in a row. (Wechsler ET al., 1997) A local "Brain Trust" that I asked while doing research for this subject had this to say about this definition of binge/mass consumption of alcohol. " Think this is pre-posterous, this Wechsler person is a real panty waist. How can someone be an expert on the binge drinking if they can't drink more than five beers?"If more than five beers are not a sufficient amount used to define binge drinking? I headed back to Mr. Burton for an answer. As luck would have it Mr. Burton "the local...

Critical Thinking Assignment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Critical Thinking Assignment - Coursework Example 2. Consumers’ data will become safer as the bill will preempt organizations from sharing personal information with third parties, without their consent. Thus, firms will be forced to use discretion while exchanging personal data. Besides, it will also help ensure that the consumers are â€Å"informed of the purpose† for which such data are being collected or used. It will also save the consumers from the hassle of having to deal with unsolicited marketing calls (Ramesh, 2012). (71 words) 3. Organizations like telemarketing companies will have to exercise extreme caution when contacting prospective customers. The bill will restrict the availability of personal data as organizations that currently share information will be hesitant to do so in the future. It will also considerably decrease our volume of sales as we will not be able to contact as many customers as we want, with our sales pitches. With the Do Not Call Registry, many people will â€Å"opt out of marketing calls and SMS-es by signing up with the Registry† there by preventing us access to customers (Ramesh, 2012). Thus, we will have to evolve other ways to conform to the regulation. (108 words) 4. The article titled, â€Å"Bill Introduced to Protect Personal Data,† written by S Ramesh, deals with the introduction of a new bill by Singapore government â€Å"after several rounds of public consultation† (Ramesh, 2012). The bill, which proposes penalties including fines for the misuse of personal data, is expected to bring dramatic changes to the concept of personal data protection. It will restrict organizations from indiscriminately obtaining, storing and exchanging personal data of individuals without their informed consent. There will be a separate Personal Data Protection Commission for enforcing this law. The â€Å"key concept of the legislation† will be to introduce a â€Å"Do Not Call Registry† where people can sign up to stop any marketing calls or text messages. This will be a great step towards